Humans


 * "For too many years Humanity was on the backfoot, reacting to threats rather than preventing them. The rest of the galaxy was bigger than us, stronger than us. We were mice, hiding in the shadows hoping the giants wouldn't see us. No more. Humanity is no longer on the defence......we are the giants now"

Humans (Latin: Homo sapiens, meaning "Wise Man") are a genus of sentient peoples native to Earth and part of the primate family. Fossil records date the last surviving species (Homo sapiens sapiens, meaning "Wise Wise Man") as having existed for about 200,000 years before the common era. By the mid-26th century, they are rated as a Tier 3 race as per the Forerunner Technological Achievement system, though it is possible they may have advanced to a higher Tier 2 during the Human-Covenant War by means of weapons, armor research and development.

Prehistory
Homo sapiens is believed to have appeared in Earth's fossil record between approximately 100,000 and 200,000 years ago (An older branch of Homo sapiens known as Homo sapiens idaltu was believed to have lived as far back as 160,000 BCE). While the exact origin of humanity is a hotly contested paleontological debate, it is likely that the first humans evolved from a genus of upright ape-like hominids called Australopithecus (likely Australopithecus afarensis).

The most successful species, Homo sapiens is not the only human to have evolved on Earth, but the Homo sapiens species, modern humanity, are believed to have either displaced or outlasted all other branches of the genus. Evidence exists that there was significant contact between anatomically-modern humans and other members of the genus, both cultural and genetic, coexisting with Homo erectus,neanderthalensis, and floresiensis, and, based on residual genetic evidence, interbreeding with other species (1-4% of the DNA in European and East Asian humans is Neanderthal, while Melanesian people have 4% of a close relative to the Neanderthals in their blood). Modern humans usually stand 6' tall, though this varies depending on nutrition, genetics and other factors. Members of the species, like some Covenant species, are four-limbed and bipedal, which enables them to walk upright on two legs and use their arms and hands (including opposable thumbs) to hold and manipulate objects such as tools.

Early civilization and regression
Humanity achieved an advanced state early in its history, including a high level of technological sophistication and expanding outward along the Orion Arm to escape Forerunner control thousands of years before the activation of the Halo Array. At one point, humanity formed an alliance with the San 'Shyuum and later warred against the nascent Flood. While humanity managed to drive the Flood off the galaxy for the next several millennia, the conflict led to a war with the Forerunners, a war which humanity lost. As punishment by the Didact (Forerunner leader), the humans were stripped of their technology, their civilisations smashed, and the remnants exiled to their homeworld, reduced to a pre-technological state from which they would be forced to start again. During this period The Librarian watched of Humanity to protect it from the Didact. The Librarian failed as The Didact used a composer to destroy a small proportion of man kind. Because of this The Librarian locked The Didact away for the safety of humanity and himself.

The Ark and reseeding
Humanity was one of many species indexed by the Librarian and preserved aboard Installation 00. Following the firing of the Halo Array, they were returned to Earth.

Post-Array recovery
The development of human civilization as humans recognize it today started from the ability to harness the growth cycle of plants, producing edible food-energy in a systemic fashion. This time is referred to as the Neolithic Revolution, which occurred first on Earth over 10,000 years ago and soon spread to disparate human groups. The stability that came from systemic agriculture allowed for more permanent settlements and the development of ever-more-complex tools to further benefit the members of the species.

Innovated toolmaking and the domestication of other species on Earth gave human populations greater and greater power to expand their populations, and trade ensured the diffusion of new technologies to adjacent groups. These exploding populations led to the formation of the first genuine civilizations over 8,500 years ago. The sites of such early cultures are believed to have formed in Southwest Asia and Asia Minor, and appeared elsewhere soon after. The infrastructure of civilizations continued to expand and grow in complexity as innovative technologies and larger populations allowed for increasing food-energy availability. Economic, political, and scientific advancement continued to quicken as this species was able to automate many tasks in the Industrial Revolution.

This automation gave birth to the Digital Revolution, in which computing machines allowed scientific discovery and technological development to accelerate with explosive speed. Larger urban centers and tools for civilian and military uses were able to develop, as were more modern economic and political systems. As these systems developed further, the species was able to enjoy longer, more pro-creative, and more comfortable lives, virtually impervious to other creatures from whose midst they sprang. Thus-unchecked, human population growth eventually led to the presence of several billion more humans on Earth than could be comfortably sustained, ultimately leading to a high demand for humans to expand out-world.

18th-20th Century
The 18th through 20th centuries were times of drastic developments for human civilization; an era known as the "Industrial Revolution". As an unintended result of major political and economic ramifications due to the rise of constitutional governments and refined capitalist resource management techniques, important inventions such as automobiles, electrical appliances, and aircraft went into use at unprecedented scales compared to the proliferation rate of innovations prior to this period. Revolutionary progress in humanity's understanding of medicine and chemistry was also being made during this era of turning points. Such important chemical engineering advancements included anesthesia which dramatically enhanced all surgical practices, and plastics that could cheaply fulfill an enormous amount of material roles (with the better preservation of food being one of its greatest functions). Prior to such chemical and medical advances, average humans at the beginning of this time span could expect a lifespan of approximately 45 years, but towards its end, thanks to the introduction of antibiotics and other medicines combined with better food production and preservation, the age-old scourge of widespread plague and starvation was becoming virtually a thing of the past, and enabling people to live well beyond 80 and even into 100 years of age.

Essentially, Mankind was growing ever more efficient in how it applied itself to previous sciences and arts, and the art of the military would prove no exception to this pattern. There would be a rapid change in armed conflicts, starkly different from the primitive melee-oriented wars of the past; after two massive wars within the first 50 years of the 20th century, humanity saw the invention of such technologies as superior firearms and automatic weapons, radar, tanks, missiles, jet engines, and ultimately the atomic bomb, which became the most powerful weapon then known. Atomic bombs ultimately led to nuclear warheads, which eventually became key components in human arsenals in the brutal war against the Covenant.

In the next 60 years the superpower nations of the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (succeeded by the Commonwealth of Independent States) became highly competitive, leading to a period of military and cultural tension known as the "Cold War"; an arms race by which the lethality of humanity's relatively new warfare technologies would be further refined upon in their destructive potential and precision, complimented with ever evolving battlefield doctrines and tactics as both nations sought to intimidate the other. In the 1950s, the Soviet Union launched the earliest satellite and sent the first human, Yuri Gagarin, into space, officially making humans space faring (and thus at Stage 5 in the Technological Achievement Tiers). The United States successfully placed the first human, Neil Armstrong, on the Moon, and eventually surpassed the Soviet Union's space faring and military production capabilities, leaving their doctrines as the ones that would heavily influence the UNSC in later centuries.

Additionally, with the creation of the Internet in the late 20th century, achievements from that era would dramatically revolutionize communication and data processing, further streamlining mankind's rate of technological progress. World politics also changed, with the early history of the United Nations beginning during this time period. The religiously neutral nature of many of these constitutional style governments also saw a relative diminish in the weight of ideological dogma, with scientific and logical explanations for phenomena and methodology rising in importance. Religion would remain a staple of human societies insofar as advocating personal ethical codes, though unlike the Covenant its primary influence was no longer that of a mere framework to justify a large hierarchical system of differing castes and birthrights. In the later end of the 20th century, satellites were now using solar energy over primitive battery sources to power itself (as seen with earlier models) thus leading to a very long lifetime. And with this, satellites saw a much more massive and broader usage as means to send and retrieve data and communications, and additionally a method of navigation to both normal civilians as well as military purposes. Although much of the technology used during this time is disregarded as "primitive" by the standards of the 26th century, they were all somehow a precursor to all of technologies utilized later by the UNSC.

Colonization and War
Simultaneously, this expansion was also to usher in promising new opportunities for humanity, as some of these colonies, such as planet Reach with its bountiful titanium deposits, could offer abundant stores of raw materials that may had otherwise been considerably unique and scarce on Earth. With the initial advent of interplanetary trade driving down the costs of what may had once been an expensive implementation of their technology - such as the forging of space-worthy ships and naval vessels - the effects from these carefully implemented first colonization projects helped to ensure that interstellar trade, travel and communication were to be more commonplace amongst the general populace in the ensuring centuries, eventually granting humanity the capacity to expand to hundreds of worlds and establish colonies at enhanced rates.The species was able to explore the space immediately surrounding their home planet in the 20th century, as the population began to advance beyond the capacity of the planet to comfortably sustain their civilization. The subsequent conflict over resources, economics, religion and politics on Earth gave way to numerous wars. Furthermore these tensions put great pressure on the species in the beginning of the twenty-third century, and the transnational organization that became the Unified Earth Government (UEG) engaged in more frequent space colonization and sought to represent the entire species, even though no one state ever previously ruled the entire human race. The development of Slipspace travel in 2291 helped the UNSC engage in spreading the human race beyond their home solar system, relieving the serious ecological pressure on the home world.

The species as a whole was finally pushed into major conflict when, after several centuries of spreading throughout many solar systems and inhabiting hundreds of worlds,they discovered the violent, genocidal, theocratic Covenant, and were forced into war. As the decades-long war wore on, the human race gained the controversial reputation as a worthy adversary against the Covenant, despite the fact that they were technologically, numerically and physically inferior. Humans with the help of the SPARTANs, could hold out on ground combat and sometimes defeated the Covenant (on the rare occasion without the aid of the SPARTANs), but in space the Covenant had virtually undisputed supremacy, thanks to their talents for re-purposing Forerunner technology, space tactics and not to mention whenever they were defeated on the ground, they would glass the planet.

Humans have been able to show great bravery when facing insurmountable odds. Some of the members of the Covenant wonder why the Hierarchs had refused to allow the humans to join them, as they had with the crucial contributions of the SPARTAN-IIs been able to hold steadfast even when outmatched in almost every way. However, despite great courage, the future seemed dark for the survival of the human race as the Covenant continued to wipe out their colonies, marching ever closer to Earth. On October 20, 2552, Earth was found. In the ensuing battles over possession of Earth, humanity suffered heavy casualties.

March 3, 2553, saw the end of the Human-Covenant War as a Pyrrhic victory for humanity and their new found Sangheili  allies - the majority of the Covenant Loyalist military having been defeated at Delta Halo by the Sangheilian Fleet, and the rest annihilated by the joint Elite-UNSC forces at the Ark. This victory came in time to save the human homeworld, thanks chiefly to the actions of the Arbiter and SPARTAN John-117.

Technology
In early stages, human technology and knowledge advanced through simple trial and error in an inefficient manner, hampering faster progress. Although humans had developed writing very early on in their history, it wasn't until the invention of printing that information and ideas could be mass-communicated in an effective manner. The development of the scientific method in later conjunction with improved and more efficient capitalistic resource management techniques during the lessons of the "Industrial Revolution" resulted in stark accelerations in the development of technologies and the acquisition of knowledge. New technologies were experimented and explored with advanced knowledge of underlying principles as talented individuals were better organized and better supplied, allowing extremely accurate and fast improvements to be made with minimized trials and costs. Such methods of thought and organization are a hallmark of humanity which differs from the Covenant who, lacking proper researching methods, would simply copy and reverse-engineer technology from ancient Forerunner artifacts via the Engineers, whilst generally having no understanding of the underlying concepts themselves. Thus it is said that the Covenant are "imitative" while the humans are "innovative" as the war progresses.

In the 26th century human technology did not advance equally for every concept previously explored. The most basic technologies (such as the ballistic weaponry and the wheel) had undergone few principal changes, the explanation for this being their proven reliability over centuries of use. The technology worked and so did not require heavy alteration or major changes. Humans however did have other great advancements such as Shaw-Fujikawa Translight Engines that are capable of reaching other star systems, as well as the creation of highly sophisticated A.I.s that could serve to fulfill a versatile amount of roles.


 * Weapons: While still primarily based on projectiles and chemical reactions, human weapons are still more advanced than the weapons of the 21st century. They come with a variety of electronic gadgets such as ammo readouts and are significantly more reliable, seldom malfunctioning. They are also generally immune to electromagnetic pulses. Still, there have been some advanced developments, such as the Magnetic Accelerator Cannon, which is extensively used on ships as well as on vehicles and ground based weapons. A similar weapon, the rail-gun, was experimented with in the 20th century. There have been developments in energy weapons such as the Spartan Laser and the experimental pulse lasers used on UNSC prowler. Although some of these breakthroughs could have been based on captured Covenant technology, humans have previously used laser technology. Humans may have a good understanding of particle beam technology but have yet to utilize it in their weaponry. One of the largest breakthroughs came in the mid 20th century where humans discovered that nuclear fission and fusion can be used as a weapon to cause a large explosion, with such warheads seen in many missile installations and UNSC warships during naval battles. Innovation in this area would also converge in the creation of humanity's most devastating weapon during the war effort, known as the NOVA Bomb. By 2557 they have created handheld railguns and possibly plasma based weapons.
 * Ground Vehicles: Though human vehicles still rely on crude wheeled or continuous track motion for locomotion, UNSC vehicles are still extremely advanced, incorporating high-strength materials with precision engineering to improve mobility and durability, while often mounting a variety of weapons or equipment to increase their flexibility. Most have switched from fossil fuels to hydrogen-fuel cell engines or at the very least use hybrid-electric engines for enhanced fuel efficiency. The most powerful of human vehicles usually run on continuous tracks that allow them to better distribute their weight over uneven ground and to better grip uneven terrain thus allowing for the vehicles to go places where other wheeled counterparts could never, but the vehicles are usually heavier than their wheeled counterparts. However, the humans' armored units (i.e. Scorpions) have a small caliber cannon compared to even modern day MBTs. With only a 90mm cannon, the UNSC Scorpion seems underpowered by today's standards, but there may be other advances not revealed which compensate for this, such as it's high rate of fire compared to today's tanks, and advanced ammunition, not to mention the tank's relatively high versatility.
 * Air Vehicles: Most UNSC aircraft are designed with Vertical Take-off and Landing capabilities, using adjustable jet engines for lift and thrust. It is possible that some incorporate Lifting Body principles.
 * Medical Advances: The use of Sterile Field Generators means that surgery is not only safer to perform, with a greatly reduced risk of infection, but is also able to be performed in the field. Combat personnel also use Biofoam, an expanding semi-organic compound that fills and pressurizes a wound, numbing it at the same time.
 * Space-Faring: During the Mid-20th century, humanity experimented with rocket technology using it to build satellites and visit and subsequently colonize the Moon and beyond. With the advent of Slipspace engines allowing faster-than-light travel, the UNSC was able to expand well beyond the confines of the Sol System, colonizing a number of worlds. UNSC freighters transport food and goods between colonies, while UNSC Navy warships protect trade routes from pirates and defend colonies from enemy assault. However, the weapons and combat abilities of human spacecraft are, as of the Human-Covenant War time period, still somewhat limited. In the Post-War period one of humanities greatest technological advances in ships was the UNSC Infinity, with technology recovered from the Human-Covenant War and the Shield World Trevelyan.

Population
It is known that in the 22nd century, Earth was deemed overpopulated, jump-starting the colonization programs of the time. The population of known human settlements preceding the Human-Covenant War would amount to 39 billion humans according to the UNSC and Halsey's records and estimates. After twenty seven years of war with the genocidal Covenant, Cortana estimated approximately 23 billion humans had died. During the twenty eighth year, the Covenant also attacked Earth. By time Reach was recolonized, it was 24 billion, a third of the human population lived in extra-solar colonies.

Anatomy and Physiology
Humans are mammals, and closely related to other dominant apes on the planet Earth, meaning that they are warm-blooded and give birth to live offspring, and nourish their offspring with milk. They have five fingers, one being an opposable thumb, which a few Covenant species do not have. It was a major part in helping humans dominate on Earth. Unlike Elites, their circulatory system is closed and consists of one heart and a network of blood vessels and red blood due to the iron-based hemoglobin of humans, as well as two lungs which breathe mainly a nitrogen-oxygen-based atmosphere. Externally, they have more hair than most Covenant species, but not nearly as much as Brutes. Their eyes have more pinpointed pupils, and additionally have a poor sense of hearing and smell. They are omnivorous, meaning that they will eat both meats and plants, as well as consume high calcium foods, such as the milk of other animals, in great quantities. Their bone structure is much different than a few Covenant species. They have a large calcium deposit, as well as a more developed bone structure for protecting organs, allowing them to be a perfect target for the Flood.

Muscle-wise, humans are lean and possess relatively little muscle tissue. Consequentially, a majority of Covenant species have the ability to lift and otherwise overpower humans in straight close quarters combat while being all but impervious to any form of retaliation. In theory at least, physical conditioning negates this somewhat, as even a standard UNSC marine can be witnessed flipping a turned over vehicle, and with the right enhancements and equipment, overcome their physical disadvantages to an even further extent as demonstrated by the SPARTANs.

To their credit, the relatively low power output of the human anatomy translates into a low upkeep for their sustained bodily functions. With a metabolism well suited for the moderation of internal body temperature, less recovery time is required from physical exhertion compared to other species. Though potential prey would easily out pace them at first, by pure stamina alone, early humans were able to wear down their quadruped game as it sucumbed to heat stroke far sooner than they would.

To their further credit, standard humans can also tap into hidden reserves of energy in times of great stress via their adrenaline glands. This adrenaline rush, or "Fight or Flight" reflex as otherwise known, results in drastically increased strength and responsiveness to threat. The skeletal structure of humans also permits for substantial degree of flexibility. Combined with the reflexes granted by adrenaline, it is not uncommon for great feats of stealth and evasion to occur compared to certain Covenant species who are otherwise their physical superiors, such as the case with Hunters and Brutes.